An investigation of students’ perceptions of chemistry and factors which influence them: How do we recruit the chemists of the future?

Aminu, Amina (2026) An investigation of students’ perceptions of chemistry and factors which influence them: How do we recruit the chemists of the future? PhD thesis, University of Glasgow.

Abstract

Despite chemistry's vital role in global economic development, the discipline faces challenges in student enrolment. Recently, some chemistry departments in the United Kingdom, such as Hull University and Cardiff University, have been identified for potential closure, reflecting a recurring pattern that has been observed historically. Comparable trends have also been observed internationally, prompting the Royal Society for Chemistry (RSC), alongside industry leaders, to issue an open letter to the government calling for urgent attention to encourage school leavers and students to pursue a career in chemistry. Although initiatives promoting science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education have increased overall participation in STEM fields, chemistry has not benefited equally. Instead, students increasingly opt for biological sciences and other STEM disciplines over chemistry. This international mixed-method study investigates the factors influencing students’ decisions to study chemistry or alternative STEM subjects at university, with particular attention to the facilitators and constraints shaping chemistry enrolment in Scotland and Nigeria.
Grounded in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this research employed a complementary methodological design combining Likert-scale questionnaires, open-ended questions with Best-Worst Scaling (BWS), a choice-based measurement approach rarely used in educational research. The study surveyed 2850 first-year undergraduate students (497 in Scotland, 2353 in Nigeria) comprising both chemistry and biological science majors, alongside 90 chemistry teachers in Scotland. By comparing chemistry students with biological science students- those who chose to major in alternative sciences over chemistry, the research identified factors distinguishing chemistry enrolment from other STEM subjects. The inclusion of both Scottish and Nigerian contexts enabled examination of international recruitment challenges and contingent influences.
Five central findings emerged from the quantitative and qualitative analyses. First, chemistry specific self-efficacy (student's confidence) in their ability to succeed in chemistry emerged as the paramount driver of chemistry course selection across all contexts, consistently ranking first or second in BWS motivational ranking and showing significant differences between chemistry and biology students (Scotland: 85% vs. 77%, Nigeria: 77% vs. 80%; p < 0.001). Second, while intrinsic interest in chemistry proved widespread (75-87% agreement across all groups), it was necessary but worked as a combination factor for enrolment; students required both interest and confidence to choose chemistry. Third, chemistry's general reputation as difficult (Scotland: 78-89%, Nigeria: 51-57%; p<0.001) operated as a threshold barrier rather than an absolute deterrent-students with sufficient self-efficacy and curiosity tolerated difficulty, while those with marginal self-efficacy were deterred. Fourth, career awareness gaps emerged, with fifteen teachers (17%) identifying limited chemistry career knowledge as a major enrolment barrier despite chemistry's employment prospects. Finally, systematic socioeconomic disparities in educational opportunities created cumulative disadvantages, with schools serving the most deprived areas showing lower access to primary digital resources (interactive whiteboard: 42% insufficient vs. 22% in less deprived areas), enrichment activities (67% vs. 74% regular access to university visits) and support systems (68% vs 87%).
The BWS analysis complemented the Likert scale data, revealing the hierarchy of motivational factors in major subject selection. Students demonstrated that self-efficacy and intrinsic interest dominate decision-making (consistently ranking 1st-3rd), career prospects occupy a middle position (rank 4th), and external influences: family encouragement, teacher input, outreach activities, while acknowledged as relevant, ranked consistently below internal factors (ranks 5th-10th). The use of a combination of measurement scales provided strong validation of findings and demonstrated the BWS value for educational research examining important factors ranking in students' major subject decisions among competing considerations.
Teacher perspectives corroborated and complemented student data. Seventeen (19%) teachers identified perceived difficulty as a discouraging factor for students to major in chemistry more than any other factor. Fifteen (17%) teachers called for increased real-world applications in chemistry curricula, representing strongly proposed/suggested curriculum reform. Teachers noted time constraints preventing meaningful practical work, career discussions, and consolidation activities. Thematic analysis of open-ended responses revealed teachers' vision for chemistry education: reduced content load enabling deeper understanding, increased inquiry-based practical work, systematic integration of real-world contexts demonstrating relevance, and embedded career exploration throughout chemistry teaching rather than isolated interventions.
Comparison between Scottish and Nigerian data revealed both international and contextual variations. Self-efficacy's paramount importance proved consistent across Scotland and Nigeria, validating SCCT’s theoretical framework while demonstrating its cross-cultural applicability. However, Nigerian students weighted extrinsic factors (academic grades, career prospects) somewhat more heavily than Scottish students, who emphasised intrinsic interest more strongly, reflecting cultural differences in individualism-collectivism orientations. Despite these variations, the fundamental motivational hierarchy, efficacy and interest dominating, external influences secondary remained remarkably stable across contexts.
This research generated evidence-based recommendations organised for stakeholder groups. For policy makers: reduce chemistry curriculum content by 20-30% to enable pedagogical quality, mandate real-world context integration, reform assessment to support rather than constrain teaching, and ensure equitable resource allocation using the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD) or equivalent data.
For schools: protect teaching time for core pedagogical activities, maintain adequate technician support enabling ambitious practical work, integrate career awareness throughout chemistry teaching and learning processes, and ensure equitable enrichment access across student populations.
For teachers: implement systematic self-efficacy building through mastery experiences and attributional feedback, maximise meaningful inquiry-based practical work, contextualise abstract concepts in authentic applications, and embed career information naturally throughout teaching.
For universities: develop sustained outreach specifically targeting schools serving deprived and rural communities (exemplified by the ‘Chemistry in a Box’ project reaching 500 students across 11 schools, including remote Shetland), showcase diverse chemistry careers through multiple channels, and support teacher professional development in inquiry-based and context-based pedagogy.
For industry and professional bodies: increase chemistry career visibility through workplace visits and student interactions, curate accessible career resources suitable for classroom integration, and provide funding supporting outreach more especially to underserved communities.
This study makes four principal contributions. Theoretically, it validates SCCT and SDT while providing weights for motivational factors influencing the perception of chemistry students, demonstrating that self-efficacy operates hierarchically; students first evaluate whether they can succeed before considering whether success leads to desirable outcomes. Methodologically, it pioneers BWS application in chemistry education research, demonstrating the complementary weights in hierarchies unavailable from Likert scale. Empirically, it provides the systematic cross-national comparison of chemistry versus biological science enrolment patterns, identifying which factors challenges transcend national boundaries (self-efficacy, difficulty perceptions, career awareness) versus which require contextual adaptation (family influence, career valuation). Practically, it delivers actionable, evidence-based recommendations enabling strategic resource allocation focused on factors demonstrably driving student decisions rather than treating all acknowledged influences equally.
The findings challenge deficit narratives suggesting that students avoid chemistry due to a lack of interest or poor teaching. Rather, the evidence reveals that students have an interest in chemistry and capability to succeed; what many lack is confidence that they can navigate chemistry's demands, information about accessible career pathways, and, for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, equitable access to enrichment opportunities that advantaged students acquire informally through family connections and resources. This reframing from deficit (changing students) to asset (removing systemic barriers) has profound implications for intervention design and resource allocation.
Future research directions include: longitudinal studies tracking chemistry perceptions from secondary school through degree completion and early careers; systematic evaluation of career awareness interventions identifying which approaches most effectively expand chemistry career knowledge and translate to enrolment increases; equity intervention research testing whether targeted programs can compensate for systemic resource disparities; and extension of BWS methodology to other STEM recruitment challenges.
This research demonstrates that chemistry recruitment challenge is solvable. The chemists of the future already exist among today's students interested in chemistry phenomena, capable of mastering chemistry's intellectual demands, and ready to contribute to addressing global challenges through chemical innovation. The chemistry community's task is removing barriers preventing these students from realising their chemistry potential through building chemistry-specific self-efficacy so students believe they can succeed, contextualising abstract chemistry in applications demonstrating relevance and purpose, clarifying diverse career pathways, making chemistry's value tangible, accessible, and ensuring equitable educational opportunities regardless of socioeconomic background. The evidence base now exists for strategic, coordinated action across stakeholders. The pathway forward is mapped; the responsibility for implementation rests with policymakers, schools, teachers, universities, industry, and professional societies working together to recruit and retain the diverse, capable chemistry workforce society needs.

• Item Type: Thesis (PhD)
• Subjects: L Education > L Education (General); Q Science > QD Chemistry
• Colleges/Schools: College of Science and Engineering > School of Chemistry
• Supervisor's Name: Docherty, Dr. Frances and Dale, Dr. Vicki
• Date of Award: 2026
• Depositing User: Theses Team
• Unique ID: glathesis:2026-85905
• Copyright: Copyright of this thesis is held by the author.
• Date Deposited: 30 Apr 2026 15:46
• Last Modified: 30 Apr 2026 15:46
• Thesis DOI: 10.5525/gla.thesis.85905
• URI: https://theses.gla.ac.uk/id/eprint/85905